Food preparation
Main article: Outline of food preparation
While many foods can be eaten raw, many also undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, texture, or flavor.
At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming, or
adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve
mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.[22]
Animal preparation
The preparation of animal-based food usually involves slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning, and rendering. In developed countries, this is usually done outside the home in slaughterhouses,
which are used to process animals en masse for meat production. Many
countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example, the United States has established the Humane Slaughter Act
of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing. This
act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to
religious law, such as kosher, shechita, and dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations of kashrut require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is cut.[23]
On the local level, a butcher may commonly break down larger animal
meat into smaller manageable cuts, and pre-wrap them for commercial sale
or wrap them to order in butcher paper. In addition, fish and seafood
may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger. However fish
butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for
preservation of quality.[24]
Cooking
Main article: Cooking
The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and
combinations of ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of
food. Cooking technique, known as culinary art,
generally requires the selection, measurement, and combining of
ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired
result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients,
ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual cook.[25]
The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad
nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural, and religious
considerations that affect it.[26]
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not
always, chemically changes the molecules, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties.[27]
Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites, meats, and fish,
denatures the protein, causing it to firm. There is archaeological
evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years ago.[28]
Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and has been
practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of
pottery.[29]
Cooking equipment
Main article: Cookware and bakeware
There are many different types of equipment used for cooking.
Ovens
are mostly hollow devices that get very hot (up to 500 °F) and are used
for baking or roasting and offer a dry-heat cooking method. Different
cuisines will use different types of ovens; for example, Indian culture
uses a Tandoor oven, which is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high temperature.[30] Western kitchens use variable temperature convection ovens, conventional ovens, toaster ovens, or non-radiant heat ovens like the microwave oven. Classic Italian cuisine includes the use of a brick oven containing burning wood. Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired.[31]
Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same
variations of fuel types as the ovens mentioned above. Cook-tops are
used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat source, such as a sauté pan, sauce pot, frying pan, or pressure cooker. These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and include methods such as steaming, simmering, boiling, and poaching for moist methods, while the dry methods include sautéing, pan frying, and deep-frying.[32]
In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A grill
operates with a radiant heat source from below, usually covered with a
metal grid and sometimes a cover. An open pit barbecue in the American
south is one example along with the American style outdoor grill fueled
by wood, liquid propane, or charcoal along with soaked wood chips for
smoking.[33] A Mexican style of barbecue is called barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meats such as whole sheep over an open fire. In Argentina, an asado
(Spanish for "grilled") is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or
fire made upon the ground, on which a whole animal or smaller cuts are
grilled.[34]
Raw food preparation
Main article: Raw foodism
Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state. Salads consisting of raw vegetables or fruits are common in many cuisines. Sashimi in Japanese cuisine consists of raw sliced fish or other meat, and sushi often incorporates raw fish or seafood. Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various ingredients and served with baguettes, brioche, or frites.[35] In Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thinly sliced raw beef, drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive oil.[36] The health food movement known as raw foodism promotes a mostly vegan
diet of raw fruits, vegetables, and grains prepared in various ways,
including juicing, food dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of
preparation that do not heat the food above 118 °F (47.8 °C).[37] An example of a raw meat dish is ceviche,
a Latin American dish made with raw meat that is "cooked" from the
highly acidic citric juice from lemons and limes along with other
aromatics such as garlic.
Restaurants
Main article: Restaurant
Restaurants employ trained chefs who prepare food, and trained waitstaff to serve the customers. The term restaurant is credited to the French from the 19th century, as it relates to the restorative nature of the bouillons
that were once served in them. However, the concept pre-dates the
naming of these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food
preparation may have existed during the age of the city of Pompeii, and urban sales of prepared foods may have existed in China during the Song Dynasty. The coffee shops or cafés of 17th century Europe may also be considered an early version of the restaurant.[38] In 2005, the population of the United States spent $496 billion for out-of-home dining.
Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining were as follows: 40% in
full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (fast food), 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4% in bars and vending machines, 4.7% in hotels and motels, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in others, which includes military bases.[39]
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